Among Viking societies, Norway was much more violent than Denmark.

It has long been believed that rates of violence in Viking-era Norway and Denmark were comparable. A team of researchers, including sociologist David Jacobson of the University of South Florida, is challenging that assumption.

Their findings show that interpersonal violence, that is, violence not inflicted by authorities as punishment, is much more common in Norway. This is evidenced by the much higher rates of trauma to skeletons and the extent of weapons used in Norway. The study, published in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeologysheds new light on how Viking Age societies in Norway and Denmark differed in their experiences of violence and the role that social structures played in shaping these patterns.

Jacobson is part of an interdisciplinary team that combined archaeology and sociology with the study of skeletons and runestones – standing stones bearing inscriptions – to reveal key differences in how violence, social hierarchies and authority influenced these dynamics in the two regions. The other researchers on the team are from Norway and Germany.

“The interdisciplinary approach taken in this study shows us how social and political patterns can be revealed even when there is a dearth of written sources,” Jacobson said.

Norway: a more violent society?

Researchers analyzed skeletal remains from Viking times in Norway and Denmark and found that 33 percent of the Norwegian skeletons had healed wounds, indicating that violent clashes were not uncommon. By comparison, 37 percent of the skeletons showed signs of fatal trauma, highlighting the frequent and often deadly use of weapons in Norway.

The presence of weapons, especially swords, alongside skeletons in graves is a notable finding in Norway. The study identified more than 3,000 swords from the late Iron Age and Viking period in Norway, and only a few dozen in Denmark. These findings suggest that weapons played an important role in the identity and social status of the Norwegian Vikings, further highlighting the culture’s connection to violence.

Denmark: Stronger social hierarchies and controlled violence

In Denmark, the results show a different picture. Danish society is more centralized, with clearer social hierarchies and stronger central authority. Violence is better organized and controlled, often linked to official executions rather than acts of personal violence.

For example, skeletal remains found in Denmark showed fewer signs of weapon-related injuries, but did include evidence of executions such as decapitations. The skeletal evidence suggests that about 6% of Danish Vikings died violent deaths, almost all as a result of executions.

The more structured Danish society also had a lower percentage of graves containing weapons than that of Norway. Social order was maintained through political control, which was reflected in the construction of large earthworks and fortifications. These monumental structures, particularly during the reign of King Harald Bluetooth in the 10th century, demonstrated Denmark’s greater ability to coordinate labor and organize social hierarchies.

Why these differences?

The study suggests that Denmark’s more rigid social structure led to less frequent but more systematic violence through official channels, such as executions. Meanwhile, Norway’s more decentralized society saw more peer-to-peer violence, as indicated by the higher levels of trauma found in the skeletons.

The results also support the broader theory that stronger authority and more pronounced social hierarchies can reduce overall levels of violence in a society by centralizing the use of force under official control.

“The results of these models suggest that we are talking about distinct societies in the regions of Norway and Denmark,” Jacobson said. “This is quite striking, because it has been assumed that socially, Viking Scandinavia was largely a singular space.”

This research is part of a growing body of work that explores how social structures have influenced violence in historical societies. Similar trends have been observed in other parts of the world, such as the Andean region of South America and parts of North America, where less centralized societies have also experienced higher levels of violence.

Jacobson said he hopes the study “is a step toward a new explanatory model, especially when written sources from the period are partial or nonexistent.”